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Princess Mononoke

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Princess Mononoke
A young girl with blood on her mouth stands in front of a large white wolf. The film's title and credits are below.
Theatrical release poster
Japanese name
Kanjiもののけ姫
Transcriptions
Revised HepburnMononoke-hime
Directed byHayao Miyazaki
Written byHayao Miyazaki
Produced byToshio Suzuki
Starring
CinematographyAtsushi Okui
Edited byTakeshi Seyama
Music byJoe Hisaishi
Production
company
Distributed byToho
Release date
  • July 12, 1997 (1997-07-12)
Running time
133 minutes
CountryJapan
LanguageJapanese
Budget
  • ¥2.35 billion
  • ($23.5 million)
Box officeUS$194.3 million

Princess Mononoke (Japanese: もののけ姫, Hepburn: Mononoke-hime) is a 1997 Japanese animated historical fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki and animated by Studio Ghibli. In voice acting roles, the film stars Yōji Matsuda, Yuriko Ishida, Yūko Tanaka, Kaoru Kobayashi, Masahiko Nishimura, Tsunehiko Kamijo, Akihiro Miwa, Mitsuko Mori, and Hisaya Morishige.

Set in the late Muromachi period of Japan (approximately 1336 to 1573 AD) and including fantasy elements, the story follows a young Emishi prince named Ashitaka, and his involvement in a struggle between the gods (kami) and spirits (yōkai) of a forest against the humans who consume its resources. The film deals with a recurrent theme in Studio Ghibli work: environmentalism as a reaction against over-industrialization within the context of Shintoism, animism, and folklore.[1][2][3]

Princess Mononoke was released in Japan on July 12, 1997, by Toho, and in the United States on October 29, 1999. A critical and commercial success, the film became the highest-grossing film in Japan of 1997, and also held Japan's box office record for domestic films until 2001's Spirited Away, another Miyazaki film. It was dubbed into English with a script by Neil Gaiman and initially distributed in North America by Miramax, where it sold well on home media despite not performing strongly at the box office.[4] The film greatly increased Ghibli's popularity and influence outside Japan.

Plot

[edit]

In Muromachi Japan, an Emishi village is attacked by a hideous demon. The last Emishi prince, Ashitaka, kills it before it reaches the village, but it grasps his arm and curses him before its death. The curse grants him superhuman strength, but it also causes him pain and it will eventually kill him. The villagers discover that the demon was a boar god, corrupted by an iron ball lodged in his body. The village's oracle tells Ashitaka that he may find a cure in the western lands that the demon came from, and that he cannot return to his homeland.

Heading west, Ashitaka meets Jigo, an opportunistic monk who tells Ashitaka he may find help from the Great Forest Spirit, a deer-like animal god by day and a giant Nightwalker by night. Nearby, men on a cliffside herd oxen to their home of Iron Town, led by Lady Eboshi, and repel an attack by a wolf pack led by the wolf goddess Moro, whom Eboshi wounds with a gunshot. Riding one of the wolves is San, a human girl. Down below, Ashitaka encounters San and the wolves, who rebuff his greeting. He then rescues two of the men fallen from the cliff and transports them back through the forest, where he briefly glimpses the Great Forest Spirit.

Ashitaka and the survivors arrive at Iron Town, where he is greeted with fascination. Iron Town is a refuge for outcasts and lepers employed to process iron and create firearms, such as hand cannons and matchlock muskets. Ashitaka learns that the town was built by clearcutting forests to mine the iron, leading to conflicts with Asano, a daimyō (kanrei[5]), and a giant boar god named Nago. Eboshi admits that she shot Nago, incidentally turning him into the demon that attacked Ashitaka's village. She also reveals that San — dubbed Princess Mononoke, a supernatural spirit of retribution — was raised by the wolves and hates humankind.

San infiltrates Iron Town and fights Eboshi, but Ashitaka intervenes and subdues them both. Amidst the hysteria, a villager with a firearm shoots him, but the curse gives him strength to carry San out of the village. San wakes and tries killing the weakened Ashitaka, but hesitates when he compliments her beauty. She decides to trust him after the Forest Spirit heals his bullet wound that night. The next day, a boar clan led by the blind god Okkoto plans to attack Iron Town to save the forest. Eboshi sets out to kill the Forest Spirit with Jigo. Eboshi intends to give the god's head to the Emperor (who believes it will grant him immortality) in return for protection from Asano, while Jigo desires the large reward being offered.

Ashitaka recovers and finds Iron Town besieged by Asano's samurai and jizamurai.[5] The boar clan has been annihilated in battle, and Okkoto is badly wounded. Jigo's men trick Okkoto into leading them to the Forest Spirit. San tries stopping Okkoto but is swept up as his pain corrupts him into a demon. As everyone clashes at the pool of the Forest Spirit, Ashitaka rescues San while the Forest Spirit euthanizes Moro and Okkoto. As it begins to transform into the Nightwalker Eboshi decapitates it. Jigo steals the head, while the Forest Spirit's body bleeds ooze that spreads over the land and kills anything it touches. The forest and its spirits begin to die. Moro's head briefly comes alive and bites off Eboshi's right arm, but she survives. An enraged San tries killing Eboshi, but is stopped by Ashitaka, who consoles her and encourages her not to give up.

After Iron Town is evacuated, Ashitaka and San pursue Jigo and retrieve the head, returning it to the Forest Spirit. The Spirit dies but its form washes over the land, healing it and lifting Ashitaka's curse. Ashitaka stays to help rebuild Iron Town, but promises San he will visit her in the forest. Eboshi vows to build a better town and the forest begins to regrow.

Voice cast

[edit]
Billy Crudup (pictured in 2015), who voiced Ashitaka in the English dub
Claire Danes (pictured in 2015), who voiced San
Character name Voice actor[6]
English Japanese Japanese English
Ashitaka Ashitaka (アシタカ) Yōji Matsuda Billy Crudup
San San (サン) Yuriko Ishida Claire Danes
Lady Eboshi Eboshi Gozen (エボシ御前) Yūko Tanaka Minnie Driver
Jigo Jiko-bō (ジコ坊) Kaoru Kobayashi Billy Bob Thornton
Toki Toki (トキ) Sumi Shimamoto Jada Pinkett Smith
Kohroku Kōroku (甲六) Masahiko Nishimura John DeMita
Gonza Gonza (ゴンザ) Tsunehiko Kamijō John DiMaggio
Moro Moro no Kimi (モロの君) Akihiro Miwa Gillian Anderson
Oracle Hī-sama (ヒイ様) Mitsuko Mori Debi Derryberry
Okkoto Okkoto-nushi (乙事主) Hisaya Morishige Keith David
Nago Nago no Kami (ナゴの守) Makoto Sato Un­known
Wolf Yama-inu (山犬) Tetsu Watanabe
Ushikai Ushikai no Osa (牛飼いの長) Akira Nagoya

Development

[edit]

Early concepts and pre-production

[edit]

Hayao Miyazaki composed the preliminary ideas for what would become Princess Mononoke shortly after the release of his first film The Castle of Cagliostro (1979),[7] drawing sketches of a princess living in the woods with a beast.[8] The story was roughly based on the "Beauty and the Beast" (1740) fairy tale, set in historical Japan.[9] The Beast was realized as an animalistic spirit (mononoke) whom the protagonist, the daughter of a nobleman, is forced to marry.[10] However, after unsuccessfully proposing the film project to several production companies, Miyazaki published his concepts in a book in 1983,[11] republished in 2014 as Princess Mononoke: The First Story.[12] He reused various ideas from this project in his subsequent works such as My Neighbor Totoro (1988) and Porco Rosso (1992).[13] Shuna's Journey (1983) in particular bears the closest resemblance to the eventual film, featuring a protagonist who rides an elk to the land of gods.[14] Very few of the ideas from the 1980 concept appear in the final film,[11] and the character designs and plot are entirely different.[7] The film scholar Raz Greenberg wrote that the original concept also "[portrayed] the end of tyranny vividly", in contrast with the film, showing the antagonist's fortress destroyed, and its slaves emancipated.[15] According to the film scholar Rayna Denison, the stark difference between the original idea and the final film demonstrates the radical change of Miyazaki's filmmaking philosophies during that time.[7] He took cues from Japanese folklore, especially the tale of a princess with a birthmark, which evolved over time into Ashitaka's curse.[16]

A dense forest floor.
Some of the film's natural scenery was inspired by a visit to the forests of Yakushima.[17]

Miyazaki, inspired by the writings of Yoshie Hotta, also considered creating a film adaptation of the Hōjōki (1212), a Japanese literary classic on the ephemerality of life.[18] It was written by the poet Kamo no Chōmei during a period of political turmoil and natural disasters, which the animation scholar Susan J. Napier felt resonated with the "increasing sense of vulnerability" in Japanese culture during the time of the film's production.[19][a] However, Miyazaki felt the concept was "far removed from common sense" and had no possibility of commercial success;[20] he never moved forward with this concept but nonetheless continued to consider creating a historical piece.[19] Upon the completion of his manga series Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1982–1994), Miyazaki began work on the project proposal for the film in April 1994.[21] However, encountering writer's block in December, he decided to take a break from the production and direct the short film On Your Mark (1995) as a side project.[22] Miyazaki returned to the film and began working on the storyboards in April 1995.[23] The film's broad scope and high level of detail extended the pre-production process.[24] In May 1995, Miyazaki took four of the art directors to visit the island of Yakushima, which had already inspired some environments in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, to achieve the environmental depiction that he was seeking to portray.[25] The island's isolation and relative lack of development led them to create the film's forest of the gods.[17] The fifth, Kazuo Oga, went to the Shirakami-Sanchi mountains to take inspiration for the Emishi village.[25]

Production and animation

[edit]

Princess Mononoke was the most expensive animated film ever produced at the time.[26] The film was originally allocated a budget of ¥2 billion, which needed to be expanded to ¥2.35 billion later in the production.[27] Miyazaki stated, "I don't care if the studio goes bankrupt."[28] The animation production commenced in July 1995.[23] Miyazaki created the storyboards using the approach he took toward serialized manga, writing the film's plot as he drew the scenes.[29] Miyazaki's declining sight initially caused him to use oversized paper, but he switched back to the normal size to increase the pace of the storyboarding.[30] This process was done in parallel with the animation and the final boards outlining the end of the film were not finished until January 1997.[27]

An unusually high level of detail was afforded to the background illustrations and to animating background characters due to the large budget available.[31] The decision to assign five art directors to the film was also unprecedented in the animation industry.[32] Each one tackled a different aspect; for example, the daytime shots would be handled by one director while another covered the nighttime.[33] The film used approximately 144,000 cels, 80,000 of them being key animation frames, more than any other Studio Ghibli film.[34] Miyazaki is estimated to have drawn or retouched nearly 80,000 cels himself.[35] In June 1997, with less than a month from the release date, the final shots were completed.[23]

Computer graphics

[edit]
Ashitaka draws a bow with dark demon flesh on his arm.
3D rendering was used to create writhing demon flesh that was digitally composited onto a hand-drawn Ashitaka.[36]

The film was realized with a combination of hand-drawn animation and computer-generated imagery; approximately five minutes of the film were animated entirely using digital processes. A further ten minutes use digital ink and paint, a technique used in all subsequent Studio Ghibli films.[37] The company's hand-drawn methods were becoming outdated by the late 1990s,[38] and in a 1997 interview with members of the computer graphics team at Studio Ghibli, they felt that the adoption was made largely out of necessity.[39] According to Mamoru Oshii – a contemporary of Miyazaki's – digital painting was adopted as a technique at the insistence of Michiyo Yasuda, a senior colorist at Studio Ghibli.[40] While Studio Ghibli had already begun experimenting with digital techniques a few years prior on Pom Poko (1994), its computer graphics department was opened during the production of Princess Mononoke.[41]

Miyazaki's distaste for digital animation techniques were well known in Japan before the film's release, so his use of computer graphics came as a surprise to audiences.[42] He made the decision to use the new techniques early in the production, starting with the opening sequence with the demon god.[43] Certain sequences in the film were created using 3D tools, then processed to resemble a traditionally-animated sequence using a program called Toon Shader, developed by Microsoft at the studio's request.[44] Some of this work was outsourced to the animation studio Toyo Links.[45] Three broad categories of digital techniques were applied to the animation: use of digital ink and paint to finish coloring hand-drawn frames, 3D rendering and digital compositing, which put the hand-drawn images in a three-dimensional environment to create more visual depth, and morphing and particle effects, which create additional detail and smoother transitions.[46] Yoshinori Sugano [ja], the head of the computer graphics department, recalled that the most involved use of digital techniques were to mask the transitions between the digital and hand-drawn elements on screen. Some characters, particularly the gods, alternate being rendered with each approach between shots.[36]

Themes

[edit]

Conflicts of nature, technology, and humanity

[edit]

Environmentalism is a central theme of Princess Mononoke.[47] In the war between the forest gods and the people of Irontown, Ashitaka – the protagonist – serves as the mediator.[48] However, the film does not present these positions as complete opposites, as many Western works that touch on these themes do,[49] nor does it outright reject modernity and technology.[50] The scholars Tracey Daniels-Lerberg and Matthew Lerberg wrote that it instead "[embraces] the unpredictable outcomes that emerge in the uncertainty that remains."[49] Both humanity and nature are given equal standing in the film's world and Napier wrote that the film "offers a vision of life as a densely interwoven design, rather than a simple allegory of dichotomized opposites."[51] Additionally, the film portrays internal strife within parties on both sides of the conflict: the different clans of spirits disagree on how to handle the conflict, and the humans war amongst themselves for various reasons.[52] Ashitaka's relationships with both parties are volatile and "even dissatisfying at moments", according to Daniels-Lerberg and Lerberg. They attribute this sense of unease to the focus on emotion, rather than strict logic, that the film puts on the conflict.[53] According to the film critic Roger Ebert, Princess Mononoke is not a "simplistic tale of good and evil, but the story of how humans, forest animals, and nature gods all fight for their share of the new emerging order."[54]

The film scholars Colin Odell and Michelle Le Blanc wrote that the film simultaneously mounts a criticism of humanity's mistreatment of the natural world and "grudgingly admits" that some disputes are inevitable to facilitate technological progress.[55] While Irontown is shown to be a haven for downtrodden members of society, who have the opportunity to live honest lives and enjoy fair treatment from Eboshi,[56] the conflict arises from the harm that the settlement causes to the surrounding environment. Greenberg identified this dynamic as a marked increase in complexity from Miyazaki's earlier works, which typically presented a utopian model as an answer to social issues.[15] In a 1998 interview at the Berlin International Film Festival, Miyazaki stated that he "meant to state [his] objection to the way environmental issues are treated",[57] referring to the general exclusion of humanity's role in environmental discourse in Japan.[58] The ecological writings of the historian Sasuke Nakao [ja], especially his "evergreen forest culture theory", were greatly influential on Miyazaki when creating the film's forest of the gods.[59] Miyazaki stated that "[Nakao's book] taught me what I was the descendent of", and provided him an alternative to many traditional depictions of Japanese history that he disliked.[60]

Napier saw the film as an "elegy for a lost Japan", a version of the country that predates the modern patriarchal society and was controlled by nature.[61] Setting the film in the Muromachi period allowed Miyazaki to depict the country before it had been deforested and altered by rice agriculture,[62] and positions the film within the moment of history when "humankind pushed nature into submission", according to the animation writers Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy.[63] Miyazaki intended to portray the gods as "living animals, tortured by humans", feeling it to be an important aspect to depict in the relationship between nature and humanity.[64] He was inspired for the film's concept by the Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2100–1200 BCE), an ancient epic poem that depicts the death of the forest god and the ruin of humanity.[65] The philosopher Takeshi Umehara, who wrote a stage play titled Gilgamesh (1988), had previously suggested that Miyazaki adapt his work into a film. Miyazaki had declined the offer at the time, but later stated that he had unconsciously included elements similar to the play in Princess Mononoke.[66] The film presents several themes similar to the manga Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, which Miyazaki had completed in 1994,[67] namely the "environmental catastrophe, the role of technology and warfare, and human interactions with nonhuman species", according to Napier.[68] Clements and McCarthy wrote that the film was conceived partly due to Miyazaki's discontent with the narrative of the manga's film adaptation (1984), in which the environmental theme was suddenly resolved via a deus ex machina.[63]

Miyazaki's filmmaking style changed considerably in the 1990s in response to various geopolitical conflicts including the Gulf War and the Yugoslav Wars following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[69] He was especially critical of Japan's decision to provide military aid in the Gulf War, which he considered to be in violation of Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution.[70] These events disheartened Miyazaki, who compared them to the preamble to World War I and felt he was watching history repeat itself.[71] In 1995, two disasters occurred in Japan that had a marked negative impact on its culture: the Great Hanshin earthquake, which killed thousands and became the worst on record since 1923, and the Tokyo subway sarin attack perpetrated by the Aum Shinrikyo cult. Napier wrote that these had an effect "on both a psychological and environmental level" and heightened the country's cultural "emptiness" following the Japanese asset price bubble bursting in 1992.[19] After finishing Porco Rosso, Miyazaki resolved to create a "substantial film" that acknowledged academic discourse, eschewing the escapist philosophy of his earlier works.[72] He instead set out to depict the philosophy that, "No matter how messy things get, we have no choice but to go on living."[73]

Heterogeneity of society

[edit]

Napier wrote that "the sense of a broken heterogeneous world is stridently manifest" within Princess Mononoke.[61] Although some aspects of the film's storytelling align with the tropes of melodrama, the complexity to which Miyazaki develops the characters and his eschewal of a definite narrative resolution stand in contrast to the typical approach to a melodramatic style, which may use stereotypes and straightforward morals in service of the allegorical plot.[74] Miyazaki explained that he was inspired to portray people living with leprosy after visiting the Tama Zenshoen Sanatorium near his home in Tokyo.[75]

Style

[edit]

Princess Mononoke marked the first time Miyazaki explored a jidaigeki style – a period drama focusing on the lives of historic Japanese peoples.[76] According to Napier, the film presents a much "grimmer" tone than his previous works, inspired by the Hōjōki.[77] The film also subverts many traditional elements of the jidaigeki genre, such as the portrayals of the Emperor and the samurai as sacred and noble.[78] Additionally, Miyazaki chooses not to follow typical depictions of the Muromachi period such as the development of high culture or Zen aesthetics in Kyoto,[79] opting to focus on the beauty and danger of the natural landscape.[51] Additionally, the film exaggerates the historical perspective in order to facilitate the narrative; Irontown, for example, is inspired primarily by metalworking settlements in China,[80] and the clothing of the girls in Ashitaka's village are influenced by styles from Bhutan and Thailand.[81] However, according to McCarthy, Miyazaki was drawn to the period as the Japanese people "began to feel they could control nature, rather than placate or worship it".[23]

Release

[edit]
Hayao Miyazaki (pictured in 2009), the director
Toshio Suzuki (pictured in 2004), the producer

Marketing and Japanese release

[edit]

The promotional strategy was spearheaded by the film's producer, Toshio Suzuki, who by 1997 had already developed relationships within the media industry while promoting previous Studio Ghibli releases.[82] Napier noted that the marketing put the film under the Studio Ghibli brand for the first time – as opposed to previous works that were labeled primarily as Miyazaki films – which she felt reflected Suzuki's rising position as the studio's main producer.[83] According to Suzuki, three important elements of the campaign were the repeated use of a recognizable title logo, key imagery from the film, and a tagline.[84] The tagline underwent several iterations before, with Suzuki's input, the final phrase was chosen: "Live."[85] Suzuki also changed the title from the original intention of The Legend of Ashitaka[b] without Miyazaki's initial approval, as he found it less interesting.[87] The budget allotted for the film's promotion was at least ¥2.6 billion, even higher than the production budget, making it the largest film advertisement campaign in Japan at the time.[88] The film scholar Shiro Yoshioka argued that it was essential for Princess Mononoke to be a commercial success to make up the large production budget, and the scale of its campaign was significantly expanded from previous films' as a result.[82] Several types of merchandise, such as stuffed kodama and copies of San's mask, were sold.[89] A number of preview screenings were organized before the release to advertise the film by word of mouth. 130 of them were originally scheduled and 70 were ultimately held, a number that the film scholar Seiji Kanō still found "astonishing"; Miyazaki's previous film Porco Rosso had had only 23 screenings by comparison.[90]

Following the distribution deal struck between Walt Disney Studios and Studio Ghibli's then–parent company Tokuma Shoten in 1997, the film would be the first among Miyazaki's works to receive a worldwide release. While the arrangement did extend the studio's reach to new regions, the announcement was made primarily to attract local audiences.[91] Miyazaki also hinted at his retirement following the film's release, further piquing audience interest.[92] The film was marketed as a split between an anime and an art house film, avoiding advertising in the mainstream ahead of its release.[93] Denison felt that this choice was indicative of the studio's initial lack of confidence in the film's commercial viability[94] and their perception of its financial riskiness.[95] Yasuyoshi Tokuma [ja], the head of Tokuma Shoten, said in an interview before the release that it would be a "huge success" just to make back the investments that had been put into the film.[96] Denison argued, however, that the scale of the marketing campaign revealed the studio's ultimate aim to achieve a commercial success;[94] she interpreted this approach to the release as a "local equivalent of the 'calculated' blockbuster film."[97]

Princess Mononoke was presented by Tokuma Shoten, Nippon Television Network, and Dentsu,[98] and released theatrically in Japan on July 12, 1997,[99] to immense public anticipation.[92] The film was screened at 260 of the country's 1800 cinemas,[100] many of which reported people queueing to purchase tickets in previously unseen numbers.[92] The Japanese specialist magazine Animage, which was published by Tokuma Shoten and had been closely associated with Studio Ghibli since the 1980s, put out special issues for the film's release, as did several other publications.[101] Newspapers began to refer to the film's release as the "Mononoke phenomenon",[92] as by the end of its first week, the film had brought in over a million viewers and earned ¥1.5 billion at the box office.[102] Advertising for the film labeled it a blockbuster (daihitto) and it increasingly competed with many high-profile films in the Japanese market including Hollywood imports such as The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997).[103] By November, it had surpassed ¥9.65 billion in distribution rental sales, breaking the national record previously held by E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982).[102] 12 million people, a tenth of Japan's population at the time, had come to see the film in theaters during that period.[104] A year after the film's release, it had attracted over 14.2 million viewers[102] and earned ¥11.3 billion in gross revenue,[82] making it the all-time highest-grossing film in the country.[c]

English dub and American release

[edit]
Neil Gaiman (pictured in 2007), who wrote the English script

As part of the Disney–Tokuma deal, the film was handed over to Miramax Films, a Disney subsidiary at the time, to dub and distribute in the United States and other regions.[105] The dub was directed by Jack Fletcher, who had previously worked on the dubs of other Studio Ghibli films such as Kiki's Delivery Service,[106] and its script was written by the fantasy author Neil Gaiman, who was an unusual choice for anime localizations at the time, according to Denison.[107] In an interview, Gaiman claimed that Harvey Weinstein, who was the head of Miramax at the time, initially offered the role to the film director Quentin Tarantino, who had then recommended Gaiman instead. Gaiman was intending to decline the offer before being impressed by a scene in the film in which a stone wets in the falling rain, saying "I have never seen anything like this. This is real filmmaking."[108] Steve Alpert, an executive at Studio Ghibli, assisted with the translation.[109]

Denison wrote that Miramax's approach to the dub "might be termed a project of indigenization" with an intent to form a new identity for the film outside of Japan.[110] The language scholar Jennifer E. Nicholson wrote that the differences between the English dub and the original create a product more closely approaching an adaptation than a translation.[111] Cultural differences between the United States and Japan, amplified by the film's discussion of specifically Japanese elements, resulted in a script that continually comingled the languages and cultures of the two.[112] Gaiman inserted dialog for off-screen characters elucidating cultural concepts considered obscure for American audiences.[107] Humor in particular demanded significant alterations; Gaiman approached the issue by searching for an "emotional equivalent" for the lines instead of considering the reason the originals were humorous.[113] Gaiman recalled in later interviews that although he oversaw the writing process, alterations were sometimes made to the script without his knowledge. Several of the changes cut out terms that identified the setting of the film, such as substituting sake with wine and removing mentions of Japan and China.[114] Nicholson felt these decisions to be indicative of Miramax's intent to strip the film of its cultural context and divorce it from history entirely.[115] Gaiman also recalled his drafts receiving contradictory corrections from both Miramax and Studio Ghibli, to which he responded by writing two sets of revisions and asking them to "go fight it out amongst [themselves]."[116]

The film featured a variety of celebrity voice actors who had developed followings in both traditional acting and voice acting roles.[117] Denison wrote that a collection of American and British accents were chosen in order to further remove elements of Japanese culture and color the film with "the 'American' voice that narrates it."[118] The English-language release was marketed primarily as an art house film,[107] and the media scholar Emma Pett felt that choosing the Miramax label rather than the family film–oriented Buena Vista label helped target the film towards a "middlebrow, culturally sophisticated audience" outside the mainstream.[119] By this time, Weinstein had developed a reputation for importing and cutting films from overseas to appeal to domestic audiences.[108] However, among the terms of the distribution deal were that Studio Ghibli would approve and have ultimate control of the translation, and that the film would not have any time cut.[109] Weinstein attempted to convince Miyazaki and Suzuki otherwise but was unsuccessful.[d] Gaiman said that Miramax subsequently rolled back the planned marketing campaign and opened the film in a very limited number of screens.[108] The English dub was screened for the first time at the 48th Berlin International Film Festival on February 11, 1998,[106] and officially premiered at the Avery Fisher Hall in New York City on September 26.[124] It did not perform well at the American box office, earning only US$2.3 million.[108]

Home media and other releases

[edit]

In Japan, the film was released on VHS by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in 1997, as well as by Tokuma Shoten in 1998.[125] By 2007, Princess Mononoke sold 4.4 million DVD units in Japan.[126]

The DVD release of Princess Mononoke in North America was not initially to include the Japanese audio track. Multiple online petitions were opened to retain it,[127] and the original August 2000 release was delayed as a result.[128] Miramax Home Entertainment released the DVD on December 19, 2000, with the original Japanese audio, the English dubbed audio and extras including a trailer and a documentary with interviews from the English dub voice actors.[129]

Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Princess Mononoke on Blu-ray on November 18, 2014. In its first week, it sold 21,860 units; by November 23, 2014, it had grossed US$502,332.[130] It was later included in Disney's "The Collected Works of Hayao Miyazaki" Blu-ray set, released on November 17, 2015.[131] GKIDS re-issued the film on Blu-ray and DVD on October 17, 2017.[132] As of October 2020, the film has grossed US$9.2 million from Blu-ray sales in the United States.[130]

In the United Kingdom, the film's Studio Ghibli anniversary release appeared several times on the annual lists of bestselling foreign language film on home video.[133]

On April 29, 2000, the English version of Princess Mononoke was released theatrically in Japan.[99] The film had earned a total of US$11 million outside Japan, bringing its worldwide total to US$159 million at the time. The film has been rescreened in several runs around the world, including at the annual Studio Ghibli Fest organized by GKIDS.[134] As of 2020, the film has grossed US$194.3 million.[135]

Music

[edit]
Princess Mononoke Soundtrack
Soundtrack album by
Joe Hisaishi
ReleasedJuly 2, 1997
Recorded1997
Length65:05
LabelTokuma Japan Communications
Joe Hisaishi chronology
Parasite Eve
(1997) 		Princess Mononoke Soundtrack
(1997) 		Hana-Bi
(1998)
Joe Hisaishi (pictured in 2011), the soundtrack composer

As with many of Miyazaki's previous films, the film's score was composed by Joe Hisaishi.[136] According to McCarthy, the development of the score involved a much closer collaboration between the two than on previous works.[137] Hisaishi first composed an image album – a collection of demos and musical sketches that serve as a precursor to the finished score – which he shared with Miyazaki and Suzuki.[137] The unused title The Legend of Ashitaka appears here as the title of the opening theme.[138] With their input, the demos were then worked into the final score, performed by the Tokyo City Philharmonic.[139] Tokuma Shoten released the image album in July 1996 and the soundtrack album in July 1997.[140] The vocal theme song performed by the countertenor singer Yoshikazu Mera was released as a single before the film's release and became popular with Japanese audiences.[141] A third version of the soundtrack, arranged for symphony orchestra and performed by the Czech Philharmonic, was released in 1998.[142]

The vocal theme was re-recorded for the English dub by the American vocalist Sasha Lazard. Denison argued that this was a part of Miramax's efforts to remove Japanese elements from the film. However, she also acknowledged that the score deviates substantially from a typical Hollywood-style compositional approach. Leitmotifs, for example, which are commonly used to represent characters or settings, are instead used in transitional moments between more significant narrative events.[141] McCarthy also wrote that the film complements the scenes featuring music and dialog with a liberal use of silence and ambient sounds to augment the tension of certain moments, a significant departure from American scoring approaches.[143] Hisaishi also uses Japanese pentatonic scales in conjunction with Western tonalities.[137]

Music releases for Princess Mononoke [144]
Release date English title Japanese title Estimated units
July 22, 1996 Princess Mononoke Image Album もののけ姫 イメージアルバム 75,000
June 25, 1997 "Princess Mononoke"[e] もののけ姫 605,000
July 2, 1997 Princess Mononoke Soundtrack もののけ姫 サウンドトラック 500,000
July 8, 1998 Princess Mononoke Symphonic Suite 交響組曲 もののけ姫 80,000

Reception

[edit]

Critical response

[edit]

The film was generally well received by critics in Japan, and Kanō described a "flurry of praise" in the Japanese media following its box office success.[146] The Asahi Shimbun's Noboru Akiyama felt that the work displayed a "strong artistic quality" and a number of reviews in animation magazines highlighted its visual fidelity.[147] Several publications featured articles from critics and academics covering several aspects of the film's production as well as interviews with key staff.[148] According to Yoshioka, a variety of academics were attracted to write about the film due to themes such as Japanese cultural history being relatively "easy topics" to cover, but also in response to Miyazaki's growing status as a public intellectual (bunkajin) within Japanese society.[149] Some scholars speculated on the factors that contributed to the film's success; a number commented on the reactions of younger audience members, who found the film's themes relatable to their personal struggles and empathized with its motifs of hope.[150] Napier also wrote that the film's themes of conflict and coexistence with nature and the spirit world resonated strongly with viewers in Japan.[151] Very few reviews directed criticism at the film, and among them Kanō found many of the comments to be "highly questionable".[152] Horii Kenichiro of the Shūkan Bunshun felt that the text was difficult to parse, and others were disappointed by the fantasy that Miyazaki had constructed. A few critics also faulted the female characters' lack of sex appeal.[153]

Despite its poor performance in the American box office, the film received widespread praise from critics in the United States.[154] On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[155] On Rotten Tomatoes, 93% of the 117 critic reviews are positive, with an average rating of 8.1 out of 10. The website's consensus reads, "With its epic story and breathtaking visuals, Princess Mononoke is a landmark in the world of animation."[156] In 2018, Pett conducted a meta-analysis of 1065 critical reviews published in the United States and the United Kingdom.[157] Initial reviews often discussed the cultural differences that the film would exhibit and the alterations that Miramax had made to the presentation; Ty Burr of Entertainment Weekly was generally appreciative but felt "very curious to see if American audiences can handle it."[158] Janet Maslin of The New York Times, however, felt that the film had been "effectively translated [...] without losing its Japanese essence".[159] Many critics compared the film with the family-oriented works, primarily produced by Disney, which defined audience expectations for animations in the United States.[160] Variety's Leonard Klady wrote that the film "[flies] in the face of popular Western animation" by eschewing musical numbers or narratives written to appeal to children.[161] Critics also highlighted the violence and mature themes as aspects inappropriate for children.[162] Burr and others also favorably compared the film's fantasy elements with those of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) – which had released a few months prior – and novels such as The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955) and The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–1956).[163] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times concluded that the film was the greatest of Miyazaki's works and recommended it for a nomination at the Academy Awards.[164] In the United Kingdom, however, the film received a very limited number of reviews and was largely panned by critics. Pett and Andrew Osmond of The Guardian ascribed this to a general negative perception of anime in British society at the time, rooted in controversies caused by certain violent and sexually explicit animations.[165]

Several publications have featured the film in their lists of best films; Animage ranked Princess Mononoke 47th in their list of the 100 best anime in 2001.[166] It ranked 488th on Empire's list of the 500 greatest films,[167] 26th on Time Out's 50 greatest animated films,[168] and 26th on Total Film's 50 greatest animated films.[169]

Accolades

[edit]

Princess Mononoke was submitted by Japan to be nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the 70th Academy Awards but was ultimately unsuccessful.[170]

Award / Publication Year Category Recipient Result Ref.
Kinema Junpo 1997 Best Ten (Critics' Choice) Princess Mononoke Won [171]
Best Ten (Readers' Choice) Runner-up
Best Director (Readers' Choice) Hayao Miyazaki Won
52nd Mainichi Film Awards Best Film Princess Mononoke Won [172]
Best Animation Film Won
Japanese Movie Fans' Choice Won
10th Nikkan Sports Film Awards Best Director Hayao Miyazaki Won [173]
Yūjirō Ishihara Award Princess Mononoke Won
1st Japan Media Arts Festival Grand Prize in Animation Won [171]
7th Tokyo Sports Film Award Best Director Won
Osaka Film Festival Special Award Won
21st Fumiko Yamaji Award [ja] Cultural Award Toshio Suzuki Won [174]
15th Golden Gross Award [ja] Gold Award Princess Mononoke Won [175]
39th Japan Record Awards Composition Award Joe Hisaishi Won [176]
Best Album Production Music of Princess Mononoke Won
21st Japan Academy Film Prize 1998 Picture of the Year Princess Mononoke Won[f] [178]
Special Award Yoshikazu Mera Won
40th Blue Ribbon Awards Special Award Princess Mononoke Won [171]
22nd Hochi Film Awards Special Award Won [179]
12th Takasaki Film Festival [ja] Best Director Hayao Miyazaki Won [180]
Elan d'or Awards Special Prize Princess Mononoke Won [171]
28th Annie Awards 2000 Outstanding Individual Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production Hayao Miyazaki Nominated[g] [181]
4th Golden Satellite Awards Best Animated or Mixed Media Film Princess Mononoke Nominated [182]
27th Saturn Awards 2001 Best Home Video Release Won [183]
36th Nebula Awards Best Script Nominated [184]

Legacy

[edit]
James Cameron (pictured in 2016) cited Princess Mononoke as an influence on his science fiction film Avatar (2009).[185]

According to Napier, the film is commonly considered to be the most significant of Miyazaki's feature films.[68] She wrote that the film marked a "new chapter" in his filmography on account of its nuanced and intermingled themes and the unprecedented scope of its production.[67] The film was longer and more expensive to produce than any Studio Ghibli film up to that point, which Napier reported induced a high level of stress and demanded "almost superhuman efforts" from the entire staff, Miyazaki included. Some senior employees, worn out from the film's production, left Studio Ghibli in its aftermath, with Miyazaki himself increasingly withdrawing from public relations.[24] Suzuki recounted that Miyazaki was overtaxed from supervising the storyboards, music, and vocal recordings, and had "given his body and soul" to the making of the film.[186] In an interview before the film's release, Miyazaki said that "Physically, I just can't go on."[187] He retired in 1998, but returned shortly after to direct Spirited Away (2001) following the untimely death of Yoshifumi Kondō, who was intended to be Miyazaki's successor at Studio Ghibli.[188]

Princess Mononoke was the first film in which Miyazaki directly referenced scholarly writing, which strongly contributed to his status in Japanese society as a bunkajin and marked his works out for further academic inquiry.[189] Alongside Neon Genesis Evangelion, the film also laid the foundation for anime as a whole to become the subject of study by academics and critics.[69] Yoshioka suggested that Miyazaki's growing reputation may have constrained his later creations – as he never wrote a feature film in the style of his earlier action-adventure works after Princess Mononoke – and motivated him to retire from the public eye.[190] McCarthy, however, felt that the film provides a novel view of femininity that allows the female characters to express themselves without needing comparison to the men, but writes that Miyazaki "opened the gates of this marvelous possibility" only to revert to traditional storytelling and character archetypes in his subsequent films.[191]

Yoshioka also felt the film's widespread success turned Miyazaki into an "icon of contemporary Japanese cinema" on the international stage and primed many of his subsequent works to become commercial successes in turn.[192] It has since become a cult film due to itssustained popularity among fans,[193] and Pett wrote that the film is now an "established cultural touchstone", identifying multiple other works which it had influenced.[194] James Cameron, for example, cited the film as an influence on his science fiction film Avatar (2009).[185] Critics have also named a number of video games that take influence from the film, including Ori and the Blind Forest (2015)[195] and The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild (2017).[196] Pett identified a shift in critical writings that reinterpreted San as a feminist figure.[197] In April 2013, Studio Ghibli partnered with the English production company Whole Hog Theatre to create a stage adaptation of the film.[198] It premiered at the New Diorama Theatre in London after selling out a year ahead of time,[199] and moved to Tokyo later that year.[198]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ See § Conflicts of nature, technology, and humanity for further information.
  2. ^ Japanese: アシタカの𦻙記, Hepburn: Ashitaka no Sekki. Napier alternatively translated this title as The Tale of Ashitaka.[86]
  3. ^ The film was overturned as the highest-grossing film in Japan shortly afterward by Titanic (1997).[25]
  4. ^ The potential editing of Princess Mononoke by Miramax Films has been the subject of rumor.[120] The Guardian's Xan Brooks reported in 2005 that Miyazaki was rumored to have sent the then–head of Miramax Harvey Weinstein a samurai sword in the mail with the attached message "No cuts." In response, Miyazaki stated, "Actually, my producer did that." He also claimed he "defeated" Weinstein's attempts to shorten the film's length.[121] The claim has subsequently appeared in other media coverage.[122] Emma Pett wrote in 2018 that Miyazaki was "complicit in the construction of his auteur image" and the perpetuation of the rumor by these responses.[120] Steve Alpert recalled the events in his 2020 memoir, writing that Toshio Suzuki, after procuring a replica sword from a shop in Tokyo, presented it to Weinstein at a meeting in New York. He then "shouted in English and in a loud voice: 'Mononoke-hime, no cut!'"[123]
  5. ^ Released as a single by Yoshikazu Mera featuring the film's vocal theme song.[145]
  6. ^ Princess Mononoke was the first animated film to be nominated for, and receive, this award.[177]
  7. ^ Awarded for the English-language version of the film.[181]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ The Guardian: ‘I’m really serious this time!’: have Hayao Miyazaki and Studio Ghibli made their final masterpiece? [1]
  2. ^ The Guardian: ‘Irreplaceable’: will Hayao Miyazaki, Japan’s animation auteur, ever retire? [2]
  3. ^ The Guardian: Studio Ghibli films
  4. ^ "How Spirited Away Changed Animation Forever". Time. July 20, 2021. Archived from the original on August 5, 2023. Retrieved August 22, 2023.
  5. ^ a b 宮崎駿 監督作品 もののけ姫 (Japanese souvenir program booklet) (in Japanese). Toho. July 12, 1997. pp. 6, 9–10. ただあそこに来たのは、"アサノ公方"って言ってますから、管領とか由緒正しい侍だから、 (p.6), 侍 鉄を狙ってタタラ場を狙う領主アサノの武者達 (p.6), 地侍たちが攻めかかってくるのは、別に悪いことでも何でもない。 (pp.9-10)
  6. ^ Nausicaa.net a.
  7. ^ a b c Denison 2018, p. 3.
  8. ^ McCarthy 2002, p. 182.
  9. ^ Denison 2018, p. 3; McCarthy 2002, p. 182.
  10. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 189; McCarthy 2002, p. 182.
  11. ^ a b Greenberg 2018, p. 136.
  12. ^ Green 2014.
  13. ^ Kanō 2006, pp. 189–190.
  14. ^ Greenberg 2018, pp. 137–138.
  15. ^ a b Greenberg 2018, p. 137.
  16. ^ Cited in McCarthy 2002, pp. 182–183.
  17. ^ a b Napier 2018, p. 189; Yanagihara 2018.
  18. ^ Napier 2018, p. 180.
  19. ^ a b c Napier 2018, p. 181.
  20. ^ Cited in Kanō 2006, p. 190.
  21. ^ McCarthy 2002, p. 185; Napier 2018, p. 176.
  22. ^ Greenberg 2018, p. 140; McCarthy 2002, p. 185.
  23. ^ a b c d McCarthy 2002, p. 185.
  24. ^ a b Napier 2018, p. 178.
  25. ^ a b c McCarthy 2002, p. 186.
  26. ^ Schilling 1999, p. 5.
  27. ^ a b Kanō 2006, p. 195.
  28. ^ Cited in Kanō 2006, p. 193.
  29. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 194.
  30. ^ Kanō 2006, pp. 193–194.
  31. ^ Denison 2018, p. 7.
  32. ^ Denison 2018, p. 10.
  33. ^ Denison 2018, pp. 10–11.
  34. ^ Schilling 1999, p. 5; Toyama.
  35. ^ Denison 2018, pp. 8–9.
  36. ^ a b Denison 2023, p. 114.
  37. ^ Denison 2018, p. 13; Napier 2018, p. 177.
  38. ^ Denison 2023, pp. 106–107.
  39. ^ Shimamura & Sugano 1997, cited in Denison 2023, p. 107.
  40. ^ Oshii & Ueno 2004, p. 89, cited in Napier 2018, p. 275, note 3.
  41. ^ Denison 2023, p. 108.
  42. ^ Denison 2023, p. 107.
  43. ^ Denison 2018, p. 12.
  44. ^ Denison 2023, p. 113; Kanō 2006, p. 203.
  45. ^ Clements 2013, p. 200, cited in Denison 2023, p. 108.
  46. ^ Denison 2018, p. 12; Denison 2023, p. 113.
  47. ^ Napier 2018, p. xiii; Odell & Le Blanc 2009, p. 109.
  48. ^ Daniels-Lerberg & Lerberg 2018, p. 57.
  49. ^ a b Daniels-Lerberg & Lerberg 2018, p. 58.
  50. ^ Napier 2005, pp. 245–246.
  51. ^ a b Napier 2018, p. 185.
  52. ^ Odell & Le Blanc 2009, p. 110; Thevenin 2013, pp. 161–162.
  53. ^ Chan 2015, p. 93, cited in Daniels-Lerberg & Lerberg 2018, p. 57.
  54. ^ Ebert 1999b.
  55. ^ Odell & Le Blanc 2009, p. 109.
  56. ^ Greenberg 2018, p. 137; Thevenin 2013, p. 161.
  57. ^ Miyazaki 2014, pp. 85–86, cited in Denison 2018, p. 3.
  58. ^ Denison 2018, pp. 3–4.
  59. ^ Napier 2005, p. 242; Miyazaki 2009, p. 358, cited in Yoshioka 2018, p. 29.
  60. ^ Komatsu 1997, p. 49, cited in Napier 2005, p. 242; Yoshioka 2018, p. 29.
  61. ^ a b Napier 2005, p. 232.
  62. ^ Denison 2018, p. 4.
  63. ^ a b Clements & McCarthy 2015, p. 653.
  64. ^ Miyazaki 2014, p. 31, cited in Denison 2018, p. 2.
  65. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 197.
  66. ^ Yoshioka 2018, p. 30.
  67. ^ a b Napier 2018, pp. 176–177.
  68. ^ a b Napier 2018, p. 182.
  69. ^ a b Yoshioka 2018, p. 26.
  70. ^ Miyazaki 2009, p. 147, cited in Yoshioka 2018, pp. 26–27.
  71. ^ Miyazaki 2002, p. 95, cited in Yoshioka 2018, p. 27.
  72. ^ Yoshioka 2018, pp. 27–28.
  73. ^ Miyazaki 2009, p. 386, cited in Yoshioka 2018, p. 27.
  74. ^ Thevenin 2013, p. 161.
  75. ^ Napier 2018, p. 184.
  76. ^ Napier 2018, p. 176.
  77. ^ Napier 2018, pp. 180–181.
  78. ^ Napier 2018, p. 183.
  79. ^ Napier 2005, p. 233.
  80. ^ Miyazaki 2014, p. 64, cited in Denison 2018, p. 4.
  81. ^ Miyazaki 2002, p. 166, cited in Yoshioka 2018, p. 30.
  82. ^ a b c Yoshioka 2018, p. 33.
  83. ^ Napier 2018, p. 179.
  84. ^ Suzuki 2005, p. 122, cited in Denison 2018, p. 6.
  85. ^ Kanō 2006, pp. 209–210.
  86. ^ Napier 2018, pp. 182–183.
  87. ^ McCarthy 2002, p. 182; Suzuki 2016, p. 71, cited in Napier 2018, p. 276, note 12.
  88. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 209.
  89. ^ Denison 2018, pp. 16–17.
  90. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 210, cited in Yoshioka 2018, p. 33.
  91. ^ Napier 2018, p. 179; Denison 2023, p. 173.
  92. ^ a b c d Yoshioka 2018, p. 34.
  93. ^ Denison 2008, p. 106–107.
  94. ^ a b Denison 2008, p. 107.
  95. ^ Denison 2018, pp. 5–6.
  96. ^ Cited in Denison 2018, p. 5.
  97. ^ Denison 2018, p. 5.
  98. ^ Miyazaki 1999, p. 217.
  99. ^ a b Galbraith 2008, p. 414.
  100. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 211, cited in Yoshioka 2018, p. 34.
  101. ^ Denison 2018, p. 5; Yoshioka 2018, pp. 31–32.
  102. ^ a b c Kanō 2006, p. 212.
  103. ^ McCarthy 2002, p. 185; Denison 2008, pp. 108–109.
  104. ^ McCarthy 2002, pp. 185–186.
  105. ^ Denison 2018, p. 14.
  106. ^ a b Kanō 2006, p. 215.
  107. ^ a b c Denison 2018, p. 15.
  108. ^ a b c d Kelly 2022.
  109. ^ a b Nicholson 2018, p. 134.
  110. ^ Denison 2005, p. 2.
  111. ^ Nicholson 2018, p. 135.
  112. ^ Denison 2005, p. 2; Nicholson 2018, p. 135.
  113. ^ Biodrowski 2009, cited in Nicholson 2018, p. 135.
  114. ^ Biodrowski 2009, cited in Nicholson 2018, p. 136.
  115. ^ Nicholson 2018, p. 136.
  116. ^ Townsend 1999, cited in Nicholson 2018, p. 136.
  117. ^ Carter 2018, p. 163.
  118. ^ Denison 2005, p. 12, cited in Carter 2018, p. 168.
  119. ^ Pett 2018, p. 175.
  120. ^ a b Pett 2018, p. 185.
  121. ^ Brooks 2005.
  122. ^ Collin 2014, cited in Pett 2018, p. 185.
  123. ^ Alpert 2020, p. 76.
  124. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 216.
  125. ^ Nausicaa.net c.
  126. ^ Nakamura 2007.
  127. ^ Anime News Network 2000a.
  128. ^ Anime News Network 2000b.
  129. ^ Anime News Network 2000c.
  130. ^ a b The Numbers.
  131. ^ Polo 2015.
  132. ^ Giardina 2017.
  133. ^ BFI 2020.
  134. ^ Box Office Mojo.
  135. ^ Loo 2020.
  136. ^ McCarthy 2002, p. 196.
  137. ^ a b c McCarthy 2002, p. 189.
  138. ^ Matsumoto & Hamada 2013; Miyazaki 2009, pp. 272–274.
  139. ^ McCarthy 2002, p. 189; Caraan 2020.
  140. ^ Hisaishi.
  141. ^ a b Denison 2005, p. 4.
  142. ^ Caraan 2020.
  143. ^ McCarthy 2002, pp. 189–190.
  144. ^ Hisaishi; Kanō 2006, p. 209; Mera 1997.
  145. ^ Mera 1997.
  146. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 217–218.
  147. ^ Cited in Kanō 2006, p. 217–218.
  148. ^ Yoshioka 2018, pp. 31–32.
  149. ^ Yoshioka 2018, p. 32.
  150. ^ Yoshioka 2018, pp. 34–35.
  151. ^ Napier 2018, p. 177.
  152. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 218.
  153. ^ Cited in Kanō 2006, p. 218.
  154. ^ Kanō 2006, p. 216; Pett 2018, p. 176.
  155. ^ Metacritic.
  156. ^ Rotten Tomatoes.
  157. ^ Pett 2018, p. 173.
  158. ^ Burr 1999, cited in Pett 2018, pp. 175–176.
  159. ^ Maslin 1999, cited in Pett 2018, p. 175.
  160. ^ Pett 2018, p. 178.
  161. ^ Klady 1998, cited in Pett 2018, p. 178.
  162. ^ Pett 2018, p. 179.
  163. ^ Pett 2018, pp. 181–182.
  164. ^ Ebert 1999a, cited in Pett 2018, pp. 183–184.
  165. ^ Osmond 2000, cited in Pett 2018, pp. 176–177.
  166. ^ Anime News Network 2001.
  167. ^ Empire.
  168. ^ Time Out.
  169. ^ Total Film.
  170. ^ Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences 1997.
  171. ^ a b c d Nausicaa.net b.
  172. ^ Mainichi Shimbun.
  173. ^ Nikkan Sports.
  174. ^ Fumiko Yamaji Cultural Foundation.
  175. ^ Japan Association of Theater Owners.
  176. ^ Japan Composer's Association.
  177. ^ Odell & Le Blanc 2009, p. 112.
  178. ^ Japan Academy Film Prize.
  179. ^ Sports Hochi.
  180. ^ Takasaki Film Festival.
  181. ^ a b Annie Awards.
  182. ^ International Press Academy.
  183. ^ Saturn Awards.
  184. ^ Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America.
  185. ^ a b Ito 2009.
  186. ^ Suzuki 2016, pp. 100, 105, cited in Napier 2018, p. 178.
  187. ^ Cited in McCarthy 2002, p. 189.
  188. ^ Napier 2018, p. 195.
  189. ^ Yoshioka 2018, pp. 25, 35–36.
  190. ^ Yoshioka 2018, p. 36.
  191. ^ McCarthy 2018, p. 110–111.
  192. ^ Yoshioka 2018, pp. 26, 36.
  193. ^ Denison 2018, p. 17.
  194. ^ Pett 2018, p. 185–186.
  195. ^ Myers 2020.
  196. ^ Rowe 2023.
  197. ^ Pett 2018, p. 188.
  198. ^ a b Tanaka 2013.
  199. ^ Lussier 2012.

Book and journal sources

[edit]

Magazine and news sources

[edit]

Online and other sources

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
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